Monday, December 12 - 0 comments

Mr. Know All by William Somerset Maugham




I was prepared to dislike Max Kelada even before I knew him. The war had just finished and the passenger traffic in the ocean-going liners was heavy. Accommodation was very hard to get and you had to put up with whatever the agents chose to offer you. You could not hope for a cabin to yourself and I was thankful to be given one in which there were only two berths. But when I was told the name of my companion my heart sank. It suggested closed portholes and the night air rigidly excluded. It was bad enough to share a cabin for fourteen days with anyone (I was going from San Francisco to Yokohama, but I should have looked upon it with less dismay if my fellow passenger`s name had been Smith or Brown.

When I went on board I found Mr. Kelada`s luggage already below. I did not like the look of it; there were too many labels on the suit-cases, and the wardrobe trunk was too big. He had unpacked his toilet things, and I observed that he was a patron of the excellent Monsieur Coty; for I saw on the washing-stand his scent, his hair-wash and his brilliantine. Mr. Kelada`s brushes, ebony with his monogram in gold, would have been all the better for a scrub. I did not at all like Mr. Kelada. I made my way into the smoking-room. I called for a pack of cards and began to play patience. I had scarcely started before a man came up to me and asked me if he was right in thinking my name was so and so.

"I am Mr. Kelada," he added, with a smile that showed a row of flashing teeth, and sat down.

"Oh, yes, we`re sharing a cabin, I think."

"Bit of luck, I call it. You never know who you`re going to be put in with. I was jolly glad when I heard you were English. I`m all for us English slicking together when we`re abroad, if you understand what I mean."

I blinked.

"Are you English?" I asked, perhaps tactlessly.

"Rather. You don`t think I look like an American, do you? British to the backbone, that`s what I am."

To prove it, Mr. Kelada took out of his pocket a passport and airily waved it under my nose.

King George has many strange subjects. Mr. Kelada was short and of a sturdy build, clean-shaven and dark-skinned, with a fleshy hooked nose and very large, lustrous and liquid eyes. His long black hair was sleek and curly. He spoke with a fluency in which there was nothing English and his gestures were exuberant. I fell pretty sure that a closer inspection of that British passport would have betrayed the fact that Mr. Kelada was born under a bluer sky than is generally seen in England.

"What will you have?" he asked me.

I looked at him doubtfully. Prohibition was in force and to all appearance the ship was bone-dry. When I am not thirsty I do not know which I dislike more, ginger ale or lemon squash. But Mr. Kelada flashed an oriental smile at me.

"Whisky and soda or a dry martini, you have only to say the word."

From each of his hip pockets he fished a flask and laid it on the table before me. I chose the martini, and calling the steward he ordered a tumbler of ice and a couple of glasses.

"A very good cocktail," I said.

"Well, there are plenty more where that came from, and if you`ve got any friends on board, you tell them you`ve got a pal who`s got all the liquor in the world."

Mr. Kelada was chatty. He talked of New York and of San Francisco. He discussed plays, pictures, and politics. He was patriotic. The Union Jack is an impressive piece of drapery, but when it is nourished by a gentleman from Alexandria or Beirut, I cannot but feel that it loses somewhat in dignity. Mr. Kelada was familiar." I do not wish to put on airs, but I cannot help feeling that it is seemly in a total stranger to put "mister" before my name when he addresses me. Mr. Kelada, doubtless to set me at my case, used no such formality. I did not like Mr. Kelada. I had put aside the cards when he sat down, but now, thinking that for this first occasion our conversation had lasted long enough, I went on with my game.

"The three on the four," said Mr. Kelada.

There is nothing more exasperating when you are playing patience than to be told where to put the card you have turned up before you have had a chance to look for yourself.

"It`s coming out, it`s coming out," he cried. "The ten on the knave."

With rage and hatred in my heart I finished.

Then he seized the pack.

"Do you like card tricks?"

"No, I hate card tricks," I answered.

"Well, I`ll just show you this one."

He showed me three. Then I said I would go down to the dining-room and get my seat at table.

"Oh, that`s all right," he said. "I`ve already taken a seat for you. I thought that as we were in the same state-room we might just as well sit at the same table."

I did not like Mr. Kelada.

I not only shared a cabin with him and ate three meals a day at the same table, but I could not walk round the deck without his joining me. It was impossible to snub him. It never occurred to him that he was not wanted. He was certain that you were as glad to see him as he was to see you. In your own house you might have kicked him downstairs and slammed the door in his face without the suspicion dawning on him that he was not a welcome visitor. He was a good mixer, and in three days knew everyone on board. He ran everything. He managed the sweeps, conducted the auctions, collected money for prizes at the sports, got up quoit and golf matches, organized the concert and arranged the fancy-dress ball. He was everywhere and always. He was certainly the best haled man in the ship. We called him Mr. Know-All, even to his face. He took it as a compliment. But it was at mealtimes that he was most intolerable. For the better part of an hour then he had us at his mercy. He was hearty, jovial, loquacious and argumentative. He knew everything better than anybody else, and it was an affront to his overweening vanity that you should disagree with him. He would not drop a subject, however unimportant, till he had brought you round to his way of thinking. The possibility that he could be mistaken never occurred to him. He was the chap who knew. We sat at the doctor`s table. Mr. Kelada would certainly have had it all his own way, for the doctor was lazy and I was frigidly indifferent, except for a man called Ramsay who sat there also. He was as dogmatic as Mr. Kelada and resented bitterly the Levantine`s cocksureness. The discussions they had were acrimonious and interminable.

Ramsay was in the American Consular Service and was stationed at Kobe. He was a great heavy fellow from the Middle West, with loose fat under a tight skin, and he bulged out of this really-made clothes. He was on his way back to resume his post, having been on a flying visit to New York to retell his wife who had been spending a year at home. Mrs. Ramsay was a very pretty little thing, with pleasant manners and a sense of humor. The Consular Service is ill-paid, and she was dressed always very simply; but she knew how to wear her clothes. She achieved an effect of quiet distinction. I should not have paid any particular attention to her but that she possessed a quality that may be common enough in women, but nowadays is not obvious in their demeanour. You could not look at her without being struck by her modesty. It shone in her like a flower on a coat.

One evening at dinner the conversation by chance drifted to the subject of pearls. There had been in the papers a good deal of talk about the culture pearls which the cunning Japanese were making, and the doctor remarked that they must inevitably diminish the value of real ones. They were very good already; they would soon be perfect. Mr. Kelada, as was his habit, rushed the new topic. He told us all that was to be known about pearls. I do not believe Ramsay knew anything about them at all, but he could not resist the opportunity to have a fling at the Levantine, and in five minutes we were in the middle of a heated argument. I had seen Mr. Kelada vehement and voluble before, but never so voluble and vehement as now. At last something that Ramsay said stung him, for he thumped the table and shouted:

"Well, I ought to know what I am talking about. I`m going to Japan just to look into this Japanese pearl business. I`m in the trade and there`s not a man in it who won`t tell you that what I say about pearls goes. I know all the best pearls in the world, and what I don`t know about pearls isn`t worth knowing."

Here was news for us, for Mr. Kelada, with all his loquacity, had never told anyone what his business was. We only knew vaguely that he was going to Japan on some commercial errand. He looked round the table triumphantly.

"They`ll never be able to get a culture pearl that an expert like me can`t tell with half an eye." He pointed to a chain that Mrs. Ramsay wore. "You take my word for it, Mrs. Ramsay, that chain you`re wearing will never be worth a cent less than it is now."

Mrs. Ramsay in her modest way flushed a little and slipped the chain inside her dress. Ramsay leaned forward. He gave us all a look and a smile flickered in his eyes.

"That`s a pretty chain of Mrs. Ramsay`s, isn`t it?"

"I noticed it at once," answered Mr. Kelada. "Gee, I said to myself, those are pearls all right."

"I didn`t buy it myself, of course. I`d be interested to know how much you think it cost."

"Oh, in the trade somewhere round fifteen thousand dollars. But if it was bought on Fifth Avenue shouldn`t be surprised to hear that anything up to thirty thousand was paid for it."

Ramsay smiled grimly.

"You`ll be surprised to hear that Mrs. Ramsay bought that siring at a department store the day before we left New York, for eighteen dollars."

Mr. Kelada flushed.

"Rot. It`s not only real, but it`s as fine a siring for its size as I`ve ever seen."

"Will you bet on it? I`ll bet you a hundred dollars it`s imitation."

"Done."

"Oh, Elmer, you can`t bet on a certainty," said Mrs. Ramsay.

She had a little smile on her lips and her tone was gently deprecating.

"Can`t I? If I get a chance of easy money like that I should be all sorts of a fool not to take it."

"But how can it be proved?" she continued. "It`s only my word against Mr. Kelada`s."

"Let me look at the chain, and if it`s imitation I`ll tell you quickly enough. I can afford to lose a hundred dollars," said Mr. Kelada.

"Take it off, dear. Let the gentleman look at it as much as he wants."

Mrs. Ramsay hesitated a moment. She put her hands to the clasp.

"I can`t undo it," she said. "Mr. Kelada will just have to take my word for it."

I had a sudden suspicion that something unfortunate was about to occur, but I could think of nothing to say.

Ramsay jumped up.

"I`ll undo it."

He handed the chain to Mr. Kelada. The Levantine look a magnifying glass from his pocket and closely examined it. A smile of triumph spread over his smooth and swarthy face. He handed back the chain. He was about to speak. Suddenly he caught sight of Mrs. Ramsay`s face. It was so white that she looked as though she were about to faint. She was staring at him with wide and terrified eyes. They held a desperate appeal; it was so clear that I wondered why her husband did not see it.

Mr. Kelada stopped with his mouth open. He flushed deeply. You could almost see the effort he was making over himself.

"I was mistaken," he said. "It`s a very good imitation, but of course as soon as I looked through my glass I saw that it wasn`t real. I think eighteen dollars is just about as much as the damned thing`s worth."

He took out his pocket book and from it a hundred-dollar bill. He handed it to Ramsay without a word.

"Perhaps that`ll teach you not to be so cocksure another time, my young friend," said Ramsay as he took the note.

I noticed that Mr. Kelada`s hands were trembling.

The story spread over the ship as stories do, and he had to put up with a good deal of chaff that evening. It was a fine joke that Mr Know-All had been caught out. But Mrs. Ramsay retired to her state-room with a headache.

Next morning I got up and began to shave. Mr. Kelada lay on his bed smoking a cigarette. Suddenly there was a small scraping sound and I saw a letter pushed under the door. I opened the door and looked out. There was nobody there. I picked up the letter and saw that it was addressed to Max Kelada. The name was written in block letters. I handed it to him.

"Who`s this from?" He opened it. "Oh!"

He took out of the envelope, not a letter, but a hundred-dollar bill. He looked at me and again he reddened. He tore the envelope into little bits and gave them to me.

"Do you mind just throwing them out of the porthole?" I did as he asked, and then I looked at him with a smile.

"No one likes being made to look a perfect damned fool," he said.

"Were the pearls real?"

"If I had a pretty little wife I shouldn`t let her spend a year in New York while I stayed at Kobe," said he.

At that moment I did not entirely dislike Mr. Kelada. He reached out for his pocket book and carefully put in it the hundred-dollar note.
Saturday, December 10 - 0 comments

Place of Articulation


LABIAL
When we produced sounds “p, b, or m” we articulate by bringing both lips together. These sounds are called bilabial. We also use our lips to form sounds f and v.  To produce these sounds we articulate by touching the lower lip to upper teeth. The sounds are called labiodental. Labio is referring to lips and dental to teeth. The three bilabial sounds and the two labiodental sounds are specified as [+labial] and [-labial]

INTERDENTAL
To produce sounds represented by the th, the tip of tongue is inserted between the upper teeth and lower teeth. These sounds are called interdental or sound between the teeth. Labial and interdental  sounds are articulated at the front of oral cavity. The phonetic feature to distinguish this class is [+anterior]. The phonetic of labial sound are [+anterior] and [+labial]. The phonetic feature of interdental sounds are [+interior] and [-labial].

ALVEOLAR
To articulate d, n, t, s, or z the tip of tongue is raised to the alveolar ridge. Sound produced by rising the front part of the tongue to the alveolar ridge are called alveolar sounds. The t and s are voiceless alveolar sounds and the sound d and z are voiced alveolar sounds. Sound n is voiced nasal sound.
Alveolar sounds like labial and interdental sounds articulated at the front of the alveolar ridge and therefore are also specified as [+anterior]

VELAR
Another class of sounds is produced by raising the back of tongue to the soft palate or velum. The example sounds are k, g, and Å‹. The k is the voiceless nasal velar. These three sounds are obviously [-anterior] because they are articulated by rising the back part of the tongue to the velum which is the back part of the root of the mouth.

PALATAL (OR ALVEOPALATAL)
To produce the sounds in the middle of the words mesher, measure, the front part of the tongue is raised to a point of the hard palate just behind the alveolar ridge. The voiceless sounds in word mesher  is spelled s. these two sound never begins word. These voiceless palatal sounds begins word ‘shoe, sure, shut,  sugar’ and ends word ‘rush and push’. These sounds are articulate neither at the front nor at the back of the mouth. Therefore, the classes of sounds are specified as [-anterior] and [-back]. Alveolar and palatal has feature [+coronal] that used to distinguish between all other class of sounds which are [-coronal]

RETROFLEX
Retroflex sounds are sounds produced by the tip of tongue and the back of the alveolar ridge. Many speaker of English do not use retroflex sound at all. Retroflex sounds occur initially in words such as rye, row, ray. Speaker who pronounce r at all end of word may also have retroflex sound with the tip of tongue raised in words hour, air 
Thursday, November 24 - 0 comments

Perempuan di balik pandangku

 Suara yang baru ku dengar, hilang. Entah, apa yg dipikirkanya. Yang jelas aku masih di luar.

Dengan tak tahu apa-apa, ku mau mencoba lihat.

Kemarin, dia tidur, bermalas-malasan di meja dekat jendelanya. Dia terlalu banyak mengisi bayangan tak jelas dalam pikiran-nya yang sudah hampir penuh.

Terus ku perhatikan. Dia masih mengikat rambutnya. Belum pernah ku lihat dia setenang ini.

Indah! Itu kata yang pantas untuknya saat ini.

Ku ingin bilang, jangan pernah pakai celana pendek. kau tau, nyamuk paling suka itu. Tapi kata itu tidak bisa ku ucap, karena itulah sesekali ia memukul kakinya, berusaha mengusir nyamuk.

Lama ku perhatikan, sampai dia bagun. Tidur, itu yang ia buat kmudian.

Bisa lihat dia tidur. Buat ku tambah yakin kalau ia bisa lebih tenang, ia bisa buat dirinya lebih manis.

Sekarang waktunya pulang, kembali ke tubuh yang menugguku, masih di luar.

Terus ku pikir, kenapa dia yang selalu ku temui. Tak bisa setenang ini. Seolah dia butuh diperhatikan, butuh didekati, padahal... Tanpa itu dia bisa dapat yang dia mau.



Kalau kau baca ini, saya mau bilang, jagan bingung. Ini hanya pikiranku saja. Jadilah yang terindah.
Sunday, November 20 - 0 comments

Book: GUIDE TO RESEARCH DESIGNS, METHODS, AND STRATEGIES by Stephen Isaac & William B. Michael


Perhatian, Strategi, dan Perangkap dalam Penelitian
Ketercapaian hasil penelitian dari rancangan yang baik adalah memaksimalkan internal dan eksternal validity serta meminimalkan kekeliruannya. Untuk mencapai hal tersebut, perlu diperhatikan 14 faktor berikut ini, yakni (1) con trol- a key con cept in experim ental design, (2) confounding and cancellation of effects: two pitfall of interaction, (3) generalizability of research findings, (4) interaction between variables, (5) some common source of error, (6) making mean ingfu ll comparisons, (7) reactive versus nonreactive measures, (8) m eassu rem ent: sin gle versus multiple outcom es-trin gu lation, (9) statistical regression effects, (10) sh ort-term and lon g-term studies, (11) five point about research design, (12) large sam ples versus small sam ples, (13) individual differences, dan (14) matching as a control tehnique: some disadvantages.

Control – A Key Concept in Experimental Design
Rancangan penelitian memiliki dua tujuan mendasar, yakni menjawab pertanyaanpenelitian dengan jelas, dan mengontrol variansi (variability). Terdapat 3 jenis variansi yang perlu dikontrol untuk memperoleh hasil penelitian yang valid, yakni:
a.      Memaksimalkan variansi ekperimental (m ax i m i ze t h e e x per i m en ta l v a r i a n c e), efek sistematis dari variabel-variabel yang berkaitan dengan hipotesis penelitian. Untuk itu, lakukan perancangan, perencanaan, dan pelaksanaan penelitian yang sesuai dengan kondisi-kondisi eksperimentalnya.
b.      Control the extraneous variance, efek dari variabel yang tak diharapkan yang mungkin berpengaruh terhadap hasil penelitian. Untuk itu, lakukan hal-hal berikut:
·     mencegah variansi variabel ekstra dengan memilih subjek yang homogen; menggunakan teknik random;
·         membangun variabel ekstra ke dalam rancangan sebagai variabel independen;
·         menggunakan teknik matching (pemadanan);
·         menggunakan kontrol stastitikal.
c.       Meminimalkan variansi kekeliruan (minimize the error variance) dengan cara memperbesar ukuran sampel dan memperhatikan reliabilitasnya.

Confounding and Cancellation of Effects: Two Pitfall of Interaction
Interaksi atarvariabel, intensional atau insidental, memproses sekurang-kurangnya dua kesulitan dalam rancangan penelitiannya, yakni con f oun din g dan c a n cell in g of effect. Confounding terjadi manakala variansi dari satu atau lebih variabel independen di luar fokus penelitian, bercampur dengan variansi yang muncul dari variabel independen yang dimasukkan ke dalam masalah penelitian.
Canselling of efect, sebagai pengganti dari temuan perbedaan yang sumbernya bercampur, perbedaan itu akan tersembunyi sebab rancangannya gagal mengidentifiakasi atau membedakan variabel-variabel saling berpengaruh satu sama lain dalam satu variabel, gagal membandingkan pengkontrasan tingkatan atau sejumlah hasil dalam cancellation of efect yang sama.

Generalizability of Research Findings
Generalisasi merupakan masalah eksternal validity. Pertanyaan pokoknya adalah, apakah yang dipelajari dalam satu latar penelitian tertentu dapat diaplikasikan secara umum ke dalam banyak kelas lain dengan latar yang sama atau hampir sama. Terdapat 3 hal yang patut dipertimbangkan guna meningkatkan generalisasi hasil penelitian, yakni: (a) pemilihan subjek, (b) variasi dari sumber input atau sumber stimulus, dan (c) masalah observasi.

Interaction Between Variables
Hal-hal yang perlu diperhatikan dari interaksi antarvariabel adalah (a) pola inter¬aksi, (b) kecenderungan interaksi, (c) efek utama versus interaksi, (d) penggunaan variabel independen yang tidak tepat, dan (d) asumsi perlakuan yang matang.

Sumber-sumber kekeliruan umum yang sering terjadi menyangkut hal-hal berikut:
  1. The halo effect; unsur-unsur yang tidak relevan dalam unit studi yang mempengaruhi unsur relevan dalam pengarahan yang baik ataupun tak baik;
  2. Rating error yang meliputi tiga kategori:the over-rater error, the under-rater error, dan the central-rater error;
  3. The Hawthorne efect; mencatat beberapa faktor yakni (a) sesuatu/kesenangan baru, (b) kesadaran sebagai salah seorang partisipan dalam eksperimen, (c) lingkungan yang dimofikasi yang meliputi pengamat, prosedur khusus, pola interaksi sosial yang baru, dan (d) pengetahuan tentang hasil dari figur produktivitas sehari-hari dan balikan-balikan yang tidak sistematis;
  4. The “John Henry” Efect; fenomena penelitian yang melibatkan subjek manusia yang dirancang untuk kelompok eksperimen dan kelompok kontrol tidak memperhatikan statusnya;
  5. The experimenter bias efect; pengaruh bias dari pelaku eksperimen;
  6. The Placebo efect merupakan efek dari stimulus bawaan atau stimulus netral yang diberikan terhadap subjek;
  7. The post hoc error, tanpa memiliki hubungan penyebab dan pemengaruh;
  8. Error of misplaced precision;
  9. beware of “typical” case studies;
  10. the law of the instrument.

Making Meaningfull Comparisons
Untuk membuat perbandingan yang bermakna hendaknya memperhatikan hal-hal berikut:
1.      Data dasar (baseline) harus berkemungkinan diadaptasi secara tepat terhadap beberapa modifikasi dari beberapa latar penelitian, seperti kamera televisi, pengamat ruangan, peralatan baru, dan perubahan lain-lain dalam lingkungan.
2.      Perangkap tentang “do nothing” dari kelompok kontrol yang biasanya kelompok itu mengalami segala sesuatu yang juga dikenakan pada kelompok eksperimen kecualifaktor kritiknya. Kelompok kontrol yang tidak dikenai apapun berbeda dari kelompok eksperimen dalam banyak hal ketimbang dari variabel perlakuan yang diisolasi.
3.      Rancangan eksperimen dengan randomisasi subjek, kesempatan, dan kondisi-kondisi perlakuan akan menjadikan perbandingan bermakna.
4.      Penggunaan nomber-nomber indeks untuk transformasi data-data kasar yang tidak relevan.
5.      Menghilangkan “plausible” hipotesis tandingan.
6.      Membedakan inisial antara kelompok kontrol dan kelompok eksperimen.
7.      Hindari pretes retrospektif.
8.      Hati-hati dalam perangkap penggunaan metode.

Reactive versus Nonreactive Measures
Sebuah pengukuran dikatakan reaktif manakala si subjek secara langsung terlibat dalam studi dan ia bereaksi terhadap proses pengukuran itu sendiri. Beberapa resikonya antara lain:
  1. adanya efek “guinea pig” yang akan mempengaruhi keotentikan data;
  2. peranan seleksi;
  3. pengukuran sebagai pelaku perubahan, efek „preamble¶;
  4. perangkat jawaban, terpilih atau bebas;
  5. efek dari pewawancara;
  6. perubahan instrumen penelitian.
Pengukuran nonreaktif tidak mengubah yang diukur. Kategorinya meliputi:
1)                  jejak pisik, seperti pengujian pisik buku-buku perpustakaan;
2)                  catatan-catatan dan arsif-arsif: pemerintahan, mas media, industri, personal, dll;
3)                  pengamatan yang obstrusive.

Meassurement: Single versus Multiple Outcomes-Tringulation
Definisi operasional tentang suatu konsep membawa pada pengukuran dalam terminologi behavioral, membawa pada kegiatan memilih kriteria pengukuran tunggal atau pengukuran kelas-kelas observasi. Triangulasi dalam proses pengukuran jauh lebih baik daripada pendekatan kriteria tunggal.

Statistical Regression Effects
Statistical regression meliputi beberapa pertimbangan berikut:
1)      Kelompok ektrim dalam tes kedua (postes) menjadi kurang baik jika asalnya baik, dan menjadi baik jika asalnya kurang baik.
2)      Deviasi yang lebih besar dari sekor ekstrim, regresinya lebih besar dengan mean.
3)      Korelasi yang lebih rendah, regresi yang lebih besar terhadap mean.
4)      Pemilihan kelompok-kelompok untuk alasan independensi cenderung tidak akan surut terlalu banyak dalam tes ulang seperti juga ukuran yang tinggi akan berkorelasi dengan variabel pilihan.
5)      Pemilihan kelompok atas dasar skor ekstrim dalam satu variabel namun mengevaluasi variabel dependen yang tidak berkaitan seharusnya secara rasional bebas dari efek regresi terhadap variabel kedua.
6)      Suatu pseudo-gain tak langsung dapat muncul manakala subjek diseleksi dalam beberapa kriteria ketimbang hanya dari pretes. Karena pengujian kelas dan pretes lebih dekat waktunya, hal itu cenderung berkorelasi lebih tinggi ketimbang pengujian kelas dengan postes.
7)      Ketika subjek dipadan-padankan menurut kriteria pretes ada resiko efek regresi jika pemadanan melibatkan dua populasi yang berbeda.

Short-Term and Long-Term Studies
1)      Efek short-term dan long-term cenderung berbeda, baik secara kuantitatif maupun secara kualitatif. Misalnya, penelitian Hovland menunjukkan bahwa efek rentang-panjang lebih besar daripada efek menengah terhadap sikap umum, meskipun lebih lemah terhadap sikap-sikap khusus.
2)      2)   Tiga butir penting dalam mendefinisikan fungsi: dua poin rancangan sebelum dan sesudah mengalami kegagalan yang serius ketika penyelidikan tingkah laku berkaitan dengan pertumbuhan pokok atau fungsi perubahan. Fungsi-fungsi demikian menuntut minimum tiga poin pengukuran dalam menentukan apakah bfungsinya menyerupai linier sederhana atau salah satunya kurva linier.
3)      Rancangan eksperimen yang paling memungkinkan ialah seperti berikut ini.

Kelompok A : T1
X
T2
Kelompok B : T1
X
T2
Kelompok C: T1
X
T2
Kelompok D : T1
X
T2
Kelompok E : T1
X
T2


Five Point About Research Design
1)      Pengukuran hasil yang multi lebih baik daripada hasil tunggal (lebih banyak menggunakan variabel dependen).
2)      Variabel dependen masing-masing memiliki kriteria yang cukup jelas.
3)      Memilih variabel independen secara tepat, relevan, dan disusun dalam kombinasi yang realistik satu sama lain memberikan manfaat dari hubungan interaksi.
4)      Memungkinkan hubungan antara karakteristik personaliti dan kriteria kevalidan secara fleksibel.
5)      Penekanan interaksi antara perbedaan individual dan prinsip atau metode belajar yang khusus.

Large Samples versus Small Samples
Keuntungan dari penggunaan sampel besar dalam penelitian pendidikan ditunjang oleh teknologi komputer. Statistik untuk sampel besar melibatkan kekeliruan sampling yang lebih kecil, meningkatkan reliabilitas, dan meningkkan kekuatan tes statistik. Sampel besar lebih baik dari sampel kecil. Meskipun begitu penggunaan sampel kecil yang representatif lebih disukai untuk kondisi-kondisi:
1) contoh kecil ekonomi;
2) monitoring komputer;
3) penelitian penjelajahan dan studi pilot;
4) N dalam studi yang besar/luas.


Individual Differences
Kebanyakan penelitian pendidikan memusatkan perhatian pada kelompok-kelom-Pok yang disimpulkan berdasarkan rata-rata kelompok. Resiko dari pendekatan ini adalah kehilangan informasi penting tentang hukum perilaku dan perbedaan individual. Setiap perbedaan atara butir-butir individual dan perbedaan dalam hukum perilaku mungkin berlaku pada saat itu, dan merupakan pertanyaan yang penting.

Matching as a Control Tehnique: Some Disadvantages.
1)   secara umum, teknik penyocokan subjek secara berpasangan cenderung menciptakan lebih banyak masalah kontrol daripada pemecahannya.
2)   Pemasangan dengan pasangan identik menggunakan penetapan random. Alam me-nyediakan situasi kontrol yang baik dalam kasus pasangan identik, meskipun hal ini relatif jarang terjadi dan memiliki keterbatasan praktik yang serius dalam pengguna-annya. Aturan penetapan random perlakuan atau kelompok-kelompok harus tetap diamati.
3)   Pemasangan melalui urutan subjek dalam variabel T-1 menggunakan penetapan ran-dom. Terdapat beberapa validitas menggunakan urutan subjek yang dipasangkan dengan beberapa kriteria pretes (T- 1) seperti IQ, prestasi belajar, usia, status sosial ekonomi, dan lain-lain dan di mana penetapan random untuk perlakuan atau kelompok-kelompok tetap diamati, masalah-masalah lain muncul.

Sebagai contoh: (1) keputusan tentang variabel mana yang menjadi dasar pemasangan, (2) masalah keberhasilan pengukuran variabel yang memuaskan yang mempengaruhi independen variabel sehingga alat ukur menjadi valid dan reliabel digunakan, (3) masalah regresi sta-tistikal ketika pemasangan subjek atau kelom¬pok yang berlaku untuk menyajikan populasi yang berbeda dengan menghargai variabel pasangannya, dan (4) masalah pembuangan subjek yang tidak memenuhi kriteria pemasangan kecuali jika skor ekstrim dicakup atau jika pemasangan didasarkan pada sdua atau lebih variabel.